Description: Cardamom grows wild and is cultivated in India, Guatemala  and Sri Lanka. It grows about 4 meters and has small yellow flowers, with a violet tip. Gray fruits follow the flowers containing many seeds.
Color of cardamom seed :Pale yellow to green
Cardamom essential oil uses and benefits: Cardamom is known to be good for digestion working as a laxative it soothes colic, wind, dyspepsia and nausea, even when caused by pregnancy. It can be used as massage oil or diluted in the bath; Cardamom oil also aids digestion, coughs and can be used as a general tonic. It is vastly used in food ingredients and aromatherapy.
Consistency: Light
Strength of Aroma: Strong

History: Cardamom has been used since ancient times. Egyptians used it in incense, perfumes and for whitening teeth. The Romans used it for digestion after over-indulging in food. Arabs grounded it and mixed with their coffee and it has always been an important food ingredient in Asian cooking.

Reference: T. John Zachariah(Chemistry of cardamom from the book Cardamom

The major constituent of the seed is starch (up to 50 per cent) while in the fruit huskit is crude fibre (up to 31 per cent). The constituents of the spice differ amongvarieties, variations in environmental conditions of growth, harvesting, drying procedures and subsequent duration as well as conditions of storage. The main factor that determines the quality of cardamom is the content and composition of volatile oil, which governs the odour and flavour. The colour of the fruit does not generally affect the intrinsic organoleptic properties. However faded fruit colour generally indicate a product stored for a longer period and possibility of deterioration in the organoleptic properties through evaporation of the volatile oil (Purseglove et al.,1981).Cardamom oil is produced commercially by steam distillation of powdered fruits. The yield and organoleptic properties of the essential oil so obtained are dependent upon many factors. Fruits from recent harvest yield more oil than the one stored for a longer period. Many workers have shown that at least 4 h extraction is essential to get full recovery of oil.

Industrial production of cardamom oleoresin is relatively on a smaller scale. Solvent extraction yields about 10 per cent of oleoresin and the content is dependent upon theraw material and solvent used. Cardamom oleoresin contains about 52–58 per cent volatile oil (Purseglove et al., 1981). Oleoresin is used for flavouring and is normally dispersed in salt, flour, rusk or dextrose, before use.

Reference 3 Chemistry of cardamom by T. John Zachariah© 2002 Taylor & Francis

Composition of cardamom

Main components of cardamom volatile oil are listed in Table 3.1 and the tracecomponents are listed in Table 3.2. The volatile oil is extracted from the seeds and the husks hardly give 0.2 per cent oil. Even though the public perception about good quality cardamom is the greenish capsule, the appearance of the capsule has little to do with the recovery of volatile oil (Sarath Kumara et al., 1985). Husk gives good protection and prevents the loss of oil from seeds, and loss of oil from dehusked seeds is found to be fast.Seeds start losing oil the moment husk is removed and this increases with the storage time.

Main components of cardamom volatile oil

Components	Total oil (%)
Alpha  pinene	1.5
Beta pinene	0.2
Sabinene	2.8
Myrcene	1.6
Alpha phellandrene	0.2
Limonene	11.6
1,8-cineole	36.3
Gama terpinene	0.7
p-cymene	0.1
Terpinolene	0.5
Linalool	3.0
Linalyl acetate	2.5
Terpinen-4-ol	0.9
Alpha terpineol	2.6
Alpha terpinyl acetate	31.3
Citronellol	0.3
Nerol	0.5
Geraniol	0.5
Methyl eugenol	0.2
trans-nerolidol	2.7

Bleached cardamom tends to lose oil faster, as the husk becomes very brittle due to bleaching. Oil from freshly separated seeds or from whole capsules (seeds and husk) is almost identical (Govindarajan et al., 1982).Steam distillation is being adopted for extracting oil by most of the commercial unitsin India and elsewhere. Cryo-grinding using liquid nitrogen is ideal to prevent volatile oil loss during grinding. Supercritical extraction using liquid carbon dioxide is shown to extract more oil and the flavour is closer to natural cardamom. In oil extraction, the early fractions are rich in low boiling terpenes and 1,8-cineole and the later fractions are rich in esters. Volatile oil content is highest 20–25 days before full maturity. Ratio of the two main components, 1,8-cineole and alpha-terpinyl acetate, determine the critical flavour of the oil. The volatile oil from var. Malabar represented by Coorg greens are “more camphory” in aroma, due to the relatively higher content of 1,8-cineole. This oil is reported to be ideal for soft drinks. It is known that the early fractions during distillation are dominant in low-boiling monoterpenes and 1,8-cineole. Techniques are available to remove these fractions by fractional distillationso that the remaining oil will have more alpha-terpinyl acetate, which contributes to the mildly herbaceous, sweet spicy flavour, that is predominant in the var. Mysore or the commercial grade commonly known as “Alleppey green” (Govindarajan et al., 1982). Mathai (1985) evaluated 18 export grades (Agmark) of Indian cardamom for their chemical and physical qualities. The grades with heavier and bigger capsules Alleppey Green Extra Bold (AGEB) and Coorg Green Extra Bold (CGEB) were inferior in their flavour constituents to the medium grade (Alleppey Green Small, AGS). Chemical bleaching of the capsules reduced the amount of essential oil in the capsules. Vasanthakumar et al. (1989) reported that cardamom at the black seed stage or “karimkai” is ideal for consumption as well as for essential oil extraction.Gopalakrishnan et al. (1989) reported that thrips-affected cardamom capsules contained relatively higher, 1,8-cineole.

Nirmala Menon et al. (1999) extracted bound aroma compounds from fresh green cardamomand the free volatiles were isolated with ether:pentane (1:1) and the bound compounds with methanol. The major compounds in the aglycone fraction were identified as

3-methyl pentan-2-ol, linalool and cis and trans isomers of nerolidol and farnesol. Noleau and Toulemonde (1987) reported 122 compounds from cardamom oil cultivated in Costa Rica. They claim that among them 74 are reported for the first time (Table 3.3).

Nutrition of cardamom

Conventionally, in India, cardamom was grown as an undergrowth in dense evergreen forests of Western Ghats of South India, without tillage or nutrient application. Later with the development of intensive agriculture, tilling of soil became a routine practice, and gradually soil got depleted, especially because of cutting of forest trees to reduce shade. Besides, due to heavy rainfall in these areas and undulating topography, soil erosion and leaching of nutrients become inevitable leading to reduction in native soil fertility. Continuous cropping in the same area also leads to rapid depletion of nutrients leading to poor growth and yield. These factors necessitate the application of balanced doses of nutrients for realizing sustainable crop production in cardamom plantations. Judicious agro-management practices and use of high-yielding varieties are important factors influencing productivity vis-a-vis unit cost of cultivation of any crop. Among various management techniques, nutritional management is of great importance even though it is not by itself sufficient enough for improving productivity of a crop. Maintaining soil fertility status at optimum levels should be one of the prime concerns of any cardamom planter.

Cardamom Growing Soils

Soil functions as a medium for plant growth by way of supplying essential nutrients and water apart from support. The availability of plant nutrients at the appropriate time in soil plays a significant role in influencing crop production and productivity of the land. It is, therefore, very important that all these nutrients are supplied to plants in sufficient quantities at appropriate stages of plant growth. In India, soils of major cardamom-growing areas come under the order Alfisols, formed under alternate wet and dry conditions, and the suborder ustalfs derived from schists, granite and gneiss and are lateritic in nature (Sadanandan et al., 1990). Soils most favourable for growth and development of cardamom are red lateritic loam with layers of organic debris present in evergreen forests, although it grows on a variety of soils with only a shallow zone of humus accumulation. In general cardamom-growing soils are fairly deep having good drainage. The clay fraction is predominantly kaolinitic and hence there is some fixation of potassium in these soils. The cardamom-growing soils of Karnataka are mostly clay loam (Kulkarni et al., 1971).

Nutrition of cardamom

Refferecnce: V. Krishnakumar and S.N. Potty, Taylor & Francis

In Guatemala, cardamom growing areas have rich forest soils. Towards the northern region, it is grown in the newly cleared forestlands, the soil having dolomitic limestones, underlined with typical tropical clay. In the southern regions, soil is sandy clay loam with volcanic ash deposits. Soils in the south are more fertile than those of the north because of the presence of volcanic ash (George, 1990).

About 2860 ripe capsules weigh 1 kg while ca. 3330 physiologically mature and ca. 5000 immature capsules weigh 1 kg. Percentage recovery was 29 per cent in ripenedstage, 24 per cent in physiologically mature and 14 per cent in immature stage. Hence9 Harvesting and processing of cardamom

John Zachariah and V.S. Korikanthimath

it is ideal to pick cardamom at the just ripened stage or physiologically mature stage.At this stage the seeds inside the capsules will be black in colour.Two types of pickings are adopted – light picking and hard picking. In the first one only mature capsules are harvested. In hard picking semi-mature crop is also removed.While this may reduce the curing percentage it could increase the picking average, secure green coloured capsules and also reduce the chance of fruit drop and splitting in the field. The choice depends on the availability of labour. Cardamom harvesting is done usually by employing women labourers (Fig. 9.1).

Pharmacological Properties Of Cardamom

In Ayurveda and Sidha systems of medicine cardamom finds application as a component of several therapeutic formulations. Charakasamhita, the ancient Indian medical text, describes the use of cardamom as an antidote for food poisoning. This forms a constituentof Bhrahmi rasayana, which is used as a treatment for inflammations. Also usedas a component of many balms, ointments and therapeutic oils used against cramps,rheumatic pain, inflammations etc. In Ayurvedic texts the properties of cardamomseeds are described as aromatic, acrid, sweet, cooling, stimulant, carminative, diuretic,cardiotonic and expectorant. Cardamom is used as an ingredient in preparations usedfor the treatment of asthma, bronchitis, hemorrhoids, renal and vesicle calculi, cardiacdisorders, anorexia, dyspepsia, gastropathy, debility and vitiated conditions of vata. Butno pharmacological investigations were carried out to validate the above properties. An aqueous extract of seeds is given to nursing mother to treat ringworm infection of child (Aloskar et al., 1992). Roasted seeds are boiled with betel leaves and the extract is used to treat indigestion and worm trouble. However, such uses of cardamom in the indigenoussystem of medicine have not been evaluated pharmacologically.

Carminative action of cardamom oil

Cardamom seeds and oil have carminative action. Tincture cardamom is used in many medicinal preparations, which are used as carminative, stomachic and to relieve colic

Antimicrobial activity of cardamom oil

The terpenoid constituents are responsible for the antifungal and anitbacterial effects. Mishra et al. (1990, 1991) studied the effect of cardamom on Aspergillus flavus, the fungus which produces the deadly aflatoxin B1. Mycostatic activity was observed at400 ppm level. This was found to be as potent as synthetic antifungals commonly used (Hirasa and Takemasa, 1998). The flavour components also showed antibacterial effects against several food-born microorganisms (Kubo et al., 1991). Another study proved that growth of Morgenella morganii, was moderately inhibited by the application ofcardamom oil or powder (Shakila et al., 1996). This organism is a potent histamineproducing bacterium growing on stored fish.The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC per cent) of cardamom extracts for bacteria and fungi in comparison with a few other common spices are given in Tables 12.1 and 12.2.

Anticarcinogenic activity of cardamom oil

Banerjee et al. (1994) has found that cardamom oil enhances glutathione-S-transferaseenzyme and acid soluble sufhydril activities. These enzymes mediate the oxidation anddetoxification of xenobiotics. Cardamom oil was fed by gavage at 10 l/day for 14 daysand hepatic microsomal enzymes were measured. GST and acid-soluble sulfhydril werefound to be significantly elevated (P 0.1, P 0.001 and P 0.05 respectively)

Anti-inflammatory activity of cardamom and it oil

Yamada et al. (1992) reported that cardamom showed potent complement system activating property. Complements represent the humoral arm of natural immunological host-defense mechanism and are essential for survival. Once activated this kills certain bacteria, protozoa, fungi and virus as well as cells of higher organism. Thus complement activation forms a major part of natural defense affording a range of mediators possessing immuno-inflamatory potency. Jain et al. (1994) have shown that the drug Brahmi rasayana containing cardamom (together with cloves and long pepper), exhibited a dose-dependent anti-inflammatory activity in the case of carrageenan induced rat paw oedema. This drug also inhibited nystatin-induced inflammation in rats. Al-Zuhair et al. (1996) have shown that cardamom oil when administered at 175 and 280 _l/kg of body weight inhibited the growth of carrageenan-induced paw oedema in rats by 69.2 and 86.4 per cent respectively. The anti-inflammatory activity of cardamom oil is comparable to that of indomethacin (indometacin). El-Tabir et al. (1997) investigated the pharmacological action of cardamom oil on various animal systems, such as the cardio-vascular system of rats, nictitating membrane of cats, isolated rabbit jejunum, isolated guinea-pig ileum and the frog sciatic nerve. The essential oil (5–20 _l/kg iv) decreased the arterial blood pressure in rats and heart rate in a dose-dependent manner. These effects are antagonistic to the treatment with cyproheptadine (1 mg/kg) for 5 min.). Atropine was also antagonistic to the cardamom-induced bradycardia. The oil was not having any effect on isolated, perfused rat heart, and did not affect electricallyinduced contractions of the cat nictitating membrane. At concentrations of less than 0.08 _l/ml the oil induced contractions of the jejunum; but larger doses relaxed it. Larger dose of the oil was antagonistic to the action of acetylcholine, nicotine and BaCl2 on the rabbit jejunum. The oil at concentrations of 0.01–0.04 _l/ml, induced contractions of the isolated guinea pig ileum; this effect was suppressed by atropine and cyproheptadine. Exposure of frog sciatic nerve to 0.2–0.4 _l/ml cardamom oil suppressed the frog limb withdrawal reflex, exhibiting a local anaesthetic effect (El-Tabir et al., 1997). Al-Zuhair et al. (1996) have shown that cardamom oil also exhibited analgesic properties and inhibited spontaneous and acetylcholine induced movements of rabbit intestine in vitro in a dose-dependent manner.

Other pharmacological studies about cardamom oil

From these pharmacological investigations the beneficial effects of cardamom and its oil were established. It is not a mere flavouring agent. It imparts carminative, fungicidal and bactericidal effects. It activates the complement system thereby the immunological defense mechanism of the human body is enhanced. Two other studies reported with extracts of cardamom show another aspect of its therapeutic utility. Extracts of cardamom enhance the percutaneous absorption of medicament. Yamahara et al. (1989) studied the dermal penetration of prednisolone using mouse skin model and reported that terpineol and acetylterpineol are the active constituents in cardamom extract, which facilitates the absorption. Huang et al. (1993) used rabbit skin model and in vivo and in vitro studies were conducted. They observed that the extract of cardamom enhanced the skin penetration both in vivo and in vitro. Hence addition of cardamom extract or terpineol or its acetate in balms and ointments enhances the absorption of medicaments through skin. Terpineol and bornyl acetate exhibits disinfectant and solvent properties and hence used with other volatiles for cough and respiratory tract disorders. Cineole is an ingredient along with other volatile substances for the treatment of renal and biliary calculi (Martindale, 1996). Yaw Bin et al. (1999) also investigated the effect of cardamom extract on transdermal delivery of indometacin. The permeation of indometacin was significantly enhanced after pretreatment with cardamom oil both in the in vitro (rat, rabbit and human skin) and in vivo (rabbit) studies. The indometacin flux decreased as the length of the pretreatment increased. Both natural cardamom oil and a cyclic monoterpene mixture composed of the components of the oil showed similar enhancement of indometacin permeation, indicating cyclic monoterpenes are the predominant components altering the barrier property of stratum corneum. This study also showed that three minor components in cardamom oil (alpha-pinene 6.5 per cent, alpha-pinene 4.8 per cent and alpha-terpineol0.4 per cent) had a synergistic effect with 1,8-cineole (eucalyptol) and D-limonene to enhance the permeation of indometacin.

Toxicity of cardamom

No toxicity was reported for cardamom. The main use of cardamom is as a spice, and as a flavourant. When flavour substances are added to foods no health hazard should arise at the concentrations used, as they are used in small doses only, usually not exceeding 10–20 ppm of the total quantity of the food item. Higher concentrations could not be used because of their intense smell and taste. Most of the individual components of cardamom oil were studied to assess their toxicological actions on experimental animal system. The studies were conducted under the auspicious of the international programme on food safety. In the series of Technical reports by the joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives, cardamom oil and its chemical constituents are  excluded from having any toxicological effects. In the allopathic medicine the use of cardamom is only as a carminative in certain medical formulations.

Antioxidant function of cardamom

Cardamom exerts only mild antioxidant function and hence is not very effective in preventing food spoilage.

Pharmaceutical products of cardamom

Blancow’s (1972) Martindale is giving the following preparations using cardamom:Aromatic cardamom tincture (BPC), (Tincture cardamom aromatic; carminative tincture). Cardamom seed 1 part in about 15 parts of strong ginger tincture, alcohol (90 per cent) and oil of caraway, cinnamon and clove.Compound cardamom tincture (BP). (Tincture cardamom compound). Prepared fromcardamom, cochineal and glycerin by percolation with alcohol (60 per cent). Often thetincture is decolorized by alkaloidal salts, bismuth carbonate, calcium ions and sodiumbromide.Compound cardamom tincture (USNF). Prepared by macerating cardamom seed2 gm, cinnamon 2.5 gm and caraway 1.2 gm with glycerin 5 ml and diluted withalcohol to 100 ml.

Effect on stored product insect pests in cardamom

Huang et al. (2000) studied the contact and fumigant toxicities and antifeedent activity of cardamom oil to two stored-product insect pests (Sitophilus zeamais and Tribolium castaneum). Topical application was employed for contact toxicity studies, and filter paper impregnation was used for testing fumigant action. The adults of both insects were equally susceptible to the contact toxicity of the oil at the LD 50 values of 56 and 52 g/mg insect for S. zeamais and T. castaneum respectively. For fumigant toxicity,S. zeamais adults were more than twice as susceptible as T. castaneum adults at both the LD 50 and LD 95; 12-day-old larvae of T. castaneum were more tolerant than the adults to the contact toxicity of the oil. The susceptibility of larvae to contact toxicity increased with age. Cardamom oil applied to filter paper at concentrations ranging from 1.04 to 2.34 mg/cm2 significantly reduced the hatching of T. castaneum eggs and the subsequent survival rate of the larvae. Adult emergence was also drastically reduced by cardamom oil. When applied to rice or wheat, cardamom oil totally suppressed F1 progeny production of both insects at a concentration of 5.3 103 ppm. Feeding deterrence studies showed that cardamom oil did not have any growth inhibitory or feeding

274 K.K. Vijayan et al.

Table 12.4 Mortality rate of cardamom essential oil for Dermatophagoides

farinae in comparison with other common spice

oils

Essential oil Mortality rate %

Cardamom 4.7

Clove 97.3

Mace 0.5

Nutmeg –

White pepper 0.1

Anise 56.5

Garlic 72.8

deterrence effects on either adults or larvae of T. castaneum. However, the oil significantly

reduced all the nutritional indices of the adults of S. zeamais (Huang et al., 2000).

Effect of cardamom on house dust mite

It is generally held that about 70 per cent of the allergy cases show positive antigenic reaction for house dust mites (Dermatophagoides farinae and D. petronyssinus). Yuri and Izumi (1994) studied the effect of essential oil of spices on D. farinae, and reported that some of the spice essential oils were effective against this mite (Table 12.4). They used a concentration of 80 _g/cm2 on filter papers, and the mortality rate was counted after 24 h. The essential oil of cardamom exerted only very low mortality rate.

© 2002 Taylor & Francis eyesight, strengthens nervous system and keeps one healthy. It is believed by some people that excessive use of cardamom causes impotency. One of the main properties of cardamom is its effect on different dermatological disorders. Medicated cardamom oil and cardamom powder can retard various types of hypo-pigmentation on the face (Nair and Unnikrishnan, 1997). Cardamom powder is a safe emetic that can be used in bronchial asthma patients when excess of sputum is present in the lungs. Further it is a very good cough suppressant. Cardamom finds a place in the formulation of lozenges for the management of common cold and associated symptoms (Nair and Unnikrishnan, 1997). In the form of tincture or powder, cardamom is used as a frequent adjunct to other stimulants, bitters and purgatives. A decoction of cardamom together with its pericarp and jaggery added is a popular home remedy, which relieves giddiness caused by biliousness. A compound powder containing equal parts of cardamom seeds, ginger, clove and caraway is a good stomachic in atonic dyspepsia. A powder made of equal parts of parched cardamom seed, aniseed and caraway seed is a good digestive. Cardamom is used in as many as 24 important preparations in Ayurveda in the form of decoctions, oils and powders as well as medicated fermented beverages like Arishta and Aasava (Sahadevan, 1965). Cardamom seeds along with saffron (Crocus sativus), galengal (Alpinia galanga) and ‘‘nealgor of the corryrium’’ cure cataract and other eye ailments like tumours in eyelids, fleshy growth and ophthalmia. Cardamom fruit is an emmenagogue, the only spice to qualify for this. Cardamom, cinnamon, tejpatra (Cinnamomum tamala) and iron wood tree (Mesua ferrea) taken together is known as Chaturjata. They are used to flavour electuaries and to promote their actions (Warrier, 1989).

Cardamom is also a component of medicinal preparation used to cure skin diseases, poisons, cold and inflammation. Preparations such as Eladigana (Ela-cardamom) are a common cure for vata (arthritis) and kapha (congestion) diseases, poisons, to improve complexion and to cure itching. It is also an ingredient of mixtures for improving digestion, curing vomiting, cough etc. It is used to stimulate diuresis, particularly in the case of snakebite poison. A group of medicines known as Ariyaru kashayam (six grains) for skin diseases of children contains cardamom. The Burmese (Myanmar) traditional medicine formulation – O2 (TMF-O2) consists of four basic plant ingredients one of which is cardamom (others being Anacyclus pyrethrum, Glycyrrhiza glabra and Syzygium aromaticum).